Primary health care coverage in Brazil: a dataset from 1998 to 2020.

OBJECTIVES: Primary health care builds the backbone of an effective healthcare system and can improve population health, reduce cost growth, and lessen inequality. We offer a machine-readable and open-access dataset on primary health care coverage in Brazil from 1998 to 2020. This dataset is interoperable with epidemiological data from two major studies and reusable by the research community worldwide for other purposes, such as monitoring progress toward universal health coverage and studying the association between primary health care and health outcomes. DATA DESCRIPTION: The dataset gathers official and public information from the "e-Gestor AB" platform of the Ministry of Health of Brazil and restricted data obtained by the Brazilian Access to Information Law. It includes 1,509,870 observations and 35 attributes aggregated by months/years and policy-relevant geographic units (country, macroregions, states, municipalities, and capitals) on primary health care team count and their absolute and relative population coverage estimates, information on the More Doctors Program implementation and physician counts, and spatial, demographic, and socioeconomic characteristics. We automated all data processing and curation in the free and open software R. The codes can be audited, replicated, and reused to produce alternative analyses.

Educational inequality in Rio de Janeiro and its impact on multimorbidity: evidence from the Pró-Saúde study. A cross-sectional analysis.

BACKGROUND: Information about multimorbidity is scarce in developing countries. This study aimed to estimate the association of educational attainment with occurrences of multimorbidity in a population of public employees on university campuses in Rio de Janeiro. DESIGN AND SETTING: We conducted cross-sectional analyses on baseline data (1999-2001) from 3,253 participants in the Pró-Saúde study, conducted in Brazil. METHODS: The prevalence of multimorbidity, defined as a self-reported history of medical diagnoses of two or more chronic conditions, was estimated according to sex, age, smoking, obesity and educational level. The association between education and multimorbidity was estimated using odds ratios (OR) and the relative and slope indices of inequality, in order to quantify the degree of educational inequality among individuals with multimorbidity in this population. RESULTS: Greater age, female sex, smoking and obesity had direct associations with multimorbidity; and tobacco exposure and obesity also showed direct relationships with poorer educational level. There was a monotonic inverse linear trend between educational level and the presence of multimorbidity among women, with twice the odds (OR 2.47; 95% confidence interval, CI: 1.42-4.40) between extremities of schooling categories. There was excess multimorbidity of 22% at the lowest extremity of schooling, thus showing that women with worse educational status were more affected by the outcome. No trend and no excess multimorbidity was seen among men. CONCLUSIONS: Educational inequality is an important determinant for development of multimorbidity. Men and women experience its effect differently. Researchers need to consider that sex may be an effect modifier in multimorbidity studies.

Educational inequality in Rio de Janeiro and its impact on multimorbidity: evidence from the Pró-Saúde study. A cross-sectional analysis

ABSTRACT BACKGROUND: Information about multimorbidity is scarce in developing countries. This study aimed to estimate the association of educational attainment with occurrences of multimorbidity in a population of public employees on university campuses in Rio de Janeiro. DESIGN AND SETTING: We conducted cross-sectional analyses on baseline data (1999-2001) from 3,253 participants in the Pró-Saúde study, conducted in Brazil. METHODS: The prevalence of multimorbidity, defined as a self-reported history of medical diagnoses of two or more chronic conditions, was estimated according to sex, age, smoking, obesity and educational level. The association between education and multimorbidity was estimated using odds ratios (OR) and the relative and slope indices of inequality, in order to quantify the degree of educational inequality among individuals with multimorbidity in this population. RESULTS: Greater age, female sex, smoking and obesity had direct associations with multimorbidity; and tobacco exposure and obesity also showed direct relationships with poorer educational level. There was a monotonic inverse linear trend between educational level and the presence of multimorbidity among women, with twice the odds (OR 2.47; 95% confidence interval, CI: 1.42-4.40) between extremities of schooling categories. There was excess multimorbidity of 22% at the lowest extremity of schooling, thus showing that women with worse educational status were more affected by the outcome. No trend and no excess multimorbidity was seen among men. CONCLUSIONS: Educational inequality is an important determinant for development of multimorbidity. Men and women experience its effect differently. Researchers need to consider that sex may be an effect modifier in multimorbidity studies.

Desigualdade social, interseccionalidade e hipertensão no Brasil contemporâneo / Social inequality, intersectionality, and hypertension in contemporary Brazil

Esta tese apresenta dois estudos principais que veiculam uma série de apreciações críticas para análise situacional das desigualdades em saúde. Primeiro, descreve-se uma revisão sistemática de escopo sobre a produção acadêmica e os métodos de estimação relacionados a duas medidas sumárias do gradiente socioeconômico na saúde: índice relativo de desigualdade (RII) e índice angular de desigualdade (SII). Foram incluídos 417 artigos que usaram o RII e/ou o SII em pesquisas originais, publicados em 136 periódicos entre 1985 e 2016, dos quais 45% resultaram de colaboração internacional entre 1267 pesquisadores de instituições de 60 países. 51% dos artigos usaram o RII, 13% o SII e 36% ambas as medidas. A tendência de usar ambas as medidas relativa e absoluta prevaleceu na literatura mais recente, atingindo 58% dos artigos publicados em 2016. Discutem-se cinco proposições centrais para a definição dos índices de desigualdade, identificadas por meio de um indicador descritivo, elaborado nesta tese ­ número de citações internas metodológicas. Segundo, apresenta-se um estudo seccional com dados da Pesquisa Nacional de Saúde (2013), onde o RII e o SII foram aplicados na mensuração das desigualdades na prevalência de hipertensão no Brasil, conforme estratos interseccionais de gênero, raça e escolaridade. A prevalência de hipertensão ajustada por idade foi 34% entre homens e 31% entre mulheres, mas a desigualdade de gênero foi evidente apenas entre indivíduos autodeclarados brancos ou pardos, com ensino médio completo ou superior. Diferenças raciais na prevalência de hipertensão foram observadas somente entre as mulheres, e essa desigualdade racial aumentou com o nível de escolaridade. Gradiente educacional na hipertensão foi restrito a mulheres autodeclaradas brancas (RII = 2.5; SII = 18%) ou pardas (RII = 2.3, SII = 14.5%), enquanto que a prevalência de hipertensão foi homogênea nos subgrupos de escolaridade entre as mulheres pretas e os homens de todos os estratos raciais. Esses resultados mostram uma série de detalhes contrastantes para o estabelecido padrão social da hipertensão, enfatizando a importância de examinar a reciprocidade entre múltiplas dimensões sociais na pesquisa sobre as desigualdades em saúde. O uso dos índices relativo e angular de desigualdade deve ser encorajado para o monitoramento das desigualdades em saúde em perspectiva interseccional.

This thesis presents two main studies that provide a series of critical appraisal for the situational analysis of health inequalities. The first one describes a systematic scoping review on the academic production and the estimation methods related to two summary measures of the socioeconomic gradient in health: relative index of inequality (RII) and slope index of inequality (SII). A total of 417 articles used the RII or the SII in original research, published in 136 journals between 1985 and 2016, in which 45% resulted of international collaboration among 1267 researchers from institutions of 60 countries. 51% of the articles used the RII, 13% the SII and 36% both measures. The trend of using both relative and absolute measures prevailed in the most recent literature, reaching 58% of articles published in 2016. I discuss five central proposals for the definition of inequality indices, which were identified by a descriptive indicator, elaborated in this thesis ­ the number of methodological internal citations. The second one presents a cross-sectional study with data obtained from the National Health Survey (2013), where the RII and the SII were applied for the measurement of inequalities in the prevalence of hypertension in Brazil, according to intersectional strata of gender, race, and education. The age-adjusted prevalence of hypertension was 34% among men and 31% among women, but gender inequality was evident only among white or brown people with high school education or higher. Racial differences in the prevalence of hypertension were observed only among women, and this racial inequality increased with education level. The educational gradient in hypertension was restricted to women self-identified as white (RII = 2.5; SII = 18%) or brown (RII = 2.3, SII = 14.5%), whereas the prevalence of hypertension was homogeneous across educational subgroups among black women and among men of all racial strata. These results show a number of contrasting details for the established social patterning of hypertension, and highlight the importance of examining reciprocity among multiple social dimensions in health inequalities research. The use of the relative index of inequality and the slope index of inequality should be encouraged for health inequalities monitoring in an intersectional perspective.

Educational inequalities in hypertension: complex patterns in intersections with gender and race in Brazil.

BACKGROUND: Hypertension is a major public health issue worldwide, but knowledge is scarce about its patterns and its relationship to multiple axes of social disadvantages in Latin American countries. This study describes the educational inequality in the prevalence of hypertension in Brazil, including a joint stratification by gender and race. METHODS: We analyzed interview-based data and blood pressure measurements from 59,402 participants aged 18 years or older at the 2013 Brazilian National Health Survey (PNS). Sociodemographic characteristics analyzed were gender (male, female), racial self-identification (white, brown, black), age (5-years intervals), and educational attainment (pre-primary, primary, secondary, tertiary). Hypertension was defined as systolic blood pressure ≥ 140 mmHg and/or diastolic blood pressure ≥ 90 mmHg, and/or self-reported use of antihypertensive medications in the last 2 weeks. We used logistic regression to evaluate the age-adjusted prevalences of hypertension (via marginal modeling), and pair-wise associations between education level and odds of hypertension. Further, the educational inequality in hypertension was summarized through the Relative Index of Inequality (RII) and the Slope Index of Inequality (SII). All analyses considered the appropriate sampling weights and intersections with gender, race, and education. RESULTS: Age-adjusted prevalence of hypertension was 34.0 % and 30.8 % among men and women, respectively. Black and brown women had a higher prevalence than whites (34.5 % vs. 31.8 % vs. 29.5 %), whereas no racial differences were observed among men. White and brown, but not black women, showed graded inverse associations between hypertension and educational attainment; among men, non-statistically significant associations were observed in all racial strata. The RII and SII estimated inverse gradients among white (RII = 2.5, SII = 18.1 %) and brown women (RII = 2.3, SII = 14.5 %), and homogeneous distributions of hypertension in educational subgroups among black women and among men. CONCLUSION: In this representative sample of Brazilian adults, the association between educational attainment and hypertension was influenced by gender and race - a topic still poorly understood. Our findings highlight the importance of assessing intersections of multiple sociodemographic characteristics in health inequalities research. The use of comprehensive measures of inequality, such as RII and SII, provide useful insights for monitoring health inequalities in an intersectional perspective.

[Educational inequality in the occurrence of abdominal obesity according to gender and color/race: the Pro-Health Study, 1999-2001 and 2011-2012]. / Desigualdade educacional na ocorrência de obesidade abdominal por gênero e cor/raça: Estudo Pró-Saúde, 1999-2001 e 2011-2012.

Cross-sectional data from the Pro-Health Study in 1999-2001 and 2011-2012 revealed important gender and color/race differences in the size and variation across time in educational inequalities related to abdominal obesity. Probability of obesity increased steadily in women (independently of color/race) and men (brown/black) with less schooling. These gradients were quantified according to the relative index of inequality (RII). Over the course of the decade, there was a reduction in inequality in brown/black women (ΔRII: 0.5; 95%CI: 0.2-1.1), underlying a relatively higher increase in the prevalence of abdominal obesity in women with more schooling. RII was stable in white women and brown/black men, indicating a similar increase in the prevalence of abdominal obesity in educational subgroups. The association between schooling and abdominal obesity was affected by the multiple interaction of socio-demographic factors. Our results recommend joint stratification by gender and color/race in the study of socioeconomic inequalities related to abdominal obesity.

Desigualdade educacional na ocorrência de obesidade abdominal por gênero e cor/raça: Estudo Pró-Saúde, 1999-2001 e 2011-2012 / Educational inequality in the occurrence of abdominal obesity according to gender and color/race: the Pro-Health Study, 1999-2001 and 2011-2012 / Desigualdad educacional en la ocurrencia de la obesidad abdominal por género y color/raza: Estudio Pro-Salud, 1999-2001 e 2011-2012

Resumo Análise de dados seccionais do Estudo Pró-Saúde (1999-2001 e 2011-2012) revelou importante diferença de gênero e cor/raça na magnitude e variação temporal da desigualdade educacional na obesidade abdominal. Probabilidade de estar obeso foi gradativamente maior em mulheres (independentemente de cor/raça) e homens (pardos/pretos) menos escolarizados. Tais gradientes foram quantificados pelo índice relativo de desigualdade (IRD). Ao longo da década, observou-se redução da desigualdade em mulheres pardas/pretas (ΔIRD: 0,5; IC95%: 0,2-1,1), subjacente ao relativo aumento da prevalência de obesidade abdominal entre as mais escolarizadas. Houve estabilidade do IRD em mulheres brancas e homens pardos/pretos, indicando crescimento similar da prevalência de obesidade abdominal nos subgrupos educacionais. Associação da escolaridade com a ocorrência de obesidade abdominal sofreu interação múltipla de fatores sociodemográficos. Nossos resultados encorajam a estratificação conjunta por gênero e cor/raça no estudo das desigualdades socioeconômicas na ocorrência da obesidade abdominal.

Abstract Cross-sectional data from the Pro-Health Study in 1999-2001 and 2011-2012 revealed important gender and color/race differences in the size and variation across time in educational inequalities related to abdominal obesity. Probability of obesity increased steadily in women (independently of color/race) and men (brown/black) with less schooling. These gradients were quantified according to the relative index of inequality (RII). Over the course of the decade, there was a reduction in inequality in brown/black women (ΔRII: 0.5; 95%CI: 0.2-1.1), underlying a relatively higher increase in the prevalence of abdominal obesity in women with more schooling. RII was stable in white women and brown/black men, indicating a similar increase in the prevalence of abdominal obesity in educational subgroups. The association between schooling and abdominal obesity was affected by the multiple interaction of socio-demographic factors. Our results recommend joint stratification by gender and color/race in the study of socioeconomic inequalities related to abdominal obesity.

Resumen Los análisis de datos seccionales del Estudio Pro-Salud durante los períodos 1999-2001 y 2011-2012 reveló una importante diferencia de género y color/raza en la magnitud y variación temporal de la desigualdad educacional en la obesidad abdominal. La probabilidad de estar obeso fue gradualmente mayor en mujeres (independiente de color/raza) y hombres (mulatos/negros) menos escolarizados. Tales gradientes fueron cuantificados por el índice relativo de desigualdad (IRD). A lo largo de la década, se observó una reducción de la desigualdad en mujeres mulatas/negras (ΔIRD: 0,5; IC95%: 0,2-1,1), subyacente al aumento relativamente mayor de la prevalencia de obesidad abdominal entre las más escolarizadas. Hubo estabilidad del IRD en mujeres blancas y hombres mulatos/negros, indicando crecimiento similar de la prevalencia de obesidad abdominal en los subgrupos educacionales. Asociación de la escolaridad con la ocurrencia de obesidad abdominal sufrió una interacción múltiple de factores sociodemográficos. Nuestros resultados muestran la estratificación conjunta por género y color/raza en el estudio de las desigualdades socioeconómicas en el ámbito de la obesidad abdominal.

Educational inequality in the occurrence of abdominal obesity: pró-saúde study / Desigualdade educacional na ocorrência de obesidade abdominal: estudo pró-saúde

OBJECTIVE To estimate the degree of educational inequality in the occurrence of abdominal obesity in a population of non-faculty civil servants at university campi.METHODS In this cross-sectional study, we used data from 3,117 subjects of both genders aged 24 to 65-years old, regarding the baseline ofPró-Saúde Study, 1999-2001. Abdominal obesity was defined according to abdominal circumference thresholds of 88 cm for women and 102 cm for men. A multi-dimensional, self-administered questionnaire was used to evaluate education levels and demographic variables. Slope and relative indices of inequality, and Chi-squared test for linear trend were used in the data analysis. All analyses were stratified by genders, and the indices of inequality were standardized by age.RESULTS Abdominal obesity was the most prevalent among women (43.5%; 95%CI 41.2;45.9), as compared to men (24.3%; 95%CI 22.1;26.7), in all educational strata and age ranges. The association between education levels and abdominal obesity was an inverse one among women (p < 0.001); it was not statistically significant among men (p = 0.436). The educational inequality regarding abdominal obesity in the female population, in absolute terms (slope index of inequality), was 24.0% (95%CI 15.5;32.6). In relative terms (relative index of inequality), it was 2.8 (95%CI 1.9;4.1), after the age adjustment.CONCLUSIONS Gender inequality in the prevalence of abdominal obesity increases with older age and lower education. The slope and relative indices of inequality summarize the strictly monotonous trend between education levels and abdominal obesity, and it described educational inequality regarding abdominal obesity among women. Such indices provide relevant quantitative estimates for monitoring abdominal obesity and dealing with health inequalities.

OBJETIVO Estimar o grau de desigualdade educacional na ocorrência de obesidade abdominal em população de funcionários técnico-administrativos de universidade.MÉTODOS Neste estudo seccional, utilizamos dados de 3.117 participantes de 24 a 65 anos de idade, de ambos os sexos, referentes à linha de base do Estudo Pró-Saúde, 1999-2001. Obesidade abdominal foi definida segundo pontos de corte para circunferência abdominal de 88 cm para mulheres e 102 cm para homens. Questionário multidimensional autopreenchível foi usado para avaliar escolaridade e variáveis demográficas. Na análise dos dados foram utilizados os índices angular e relativo de desigualdade e o teste de Qui-quadrado para tendência linear. Todas as análises foram estratificadas por gênero e os índices de desigualdade padronizados por idade.RESULTADOS Prevalência de obesidade abdominal foi maior entre as mulheres (43,5%; IC95% 41,2;45,9), comparado aos homens (24,3%; IC95% 22,1;26,7), em todos os estratos educacionais e faixas etárias. Associação entre escolaridade e obesidade abdominal foi inversa entre as mulheres (p < 0,001) e estatisticamente não significativa entre os homens (p = 0,436). O grau de desigualdade educacional na obesidade abdominal na população feminina em termos absolutos (Índice Angular de Desigualdade) foi 24,0% (IC95% 15,5;32,6), e em termos relativos (Índice Relativo de Desigualdade) foi 2,8 (IC95% 1,9;4,1), após ajuste por idade.CONCLUSÕES A desigualdade de gênero na prevalência de obesidade abdominal aumenta com a idade e menor escolaridade. Os índices angular e relativo de desigualdade resumem a tendência estritamente monotônica entre escolaridade e obesidade abdominal, descrevendo a desigualdade educacional na obesidade abdominal entre as mulheres. Tais índices proporcionam estimativas quantitativas relevantes para o monitoramento da obesidade abdominal e enfrentamento das desigualdades em saúde.